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Student Artwork Guide

Indian Combat

Edmonia Lewis, 1868

Name Class Date
Edmonia Lewis, Indian Combat (1868), Cleveland Museum of Art. Public domain. See this canvas under a moving light: the drawing, the true colour under the varnish, the bare pigment

The facts

Artist
Edmonia Lewis originaluniqueart.com/en/artists/edmonia-lewis/
Artist’s dates
1844 – 1907
Painted
1868
Medium
Marble Carved by removing stone and never adding any, so a single mistake cannot be undone.
Movement
Neoclassical A deliberate return to the calm balance and clear outlines of ancient Greek and Roman art.
Period
19th Century
Held at
Cleveland Museum of Art originaluniqueart.com/en/museums/cleveland-museum-of-art-cleveland/
Artistic style
Idealized human form; Balanced symmetry
Influences
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
Notable elements or techniques
Dynamic composition; Detailed anatomy; Polished surface
Subject or theme
Native American Conflict; Colonialism

Copyright This work is in the public domain. Edmonia Lewis died in 1907; copyright lasts 70 years after the artist’s death, so it ended in 1977.

Source: OriginalUniqueArt.com — accessed Sept. 29, 2026

Indian Combat — Edmonia Lewis Part 1 · The artwork

In context

Indian Combat — Edmonia Lewis

When was this painted?

  1. 1840
  2. 1850
  3. 1860
  4. 1870
  5. 1880
  6. 1890
  7. 1900

Row above: the years. Row below: how old the artist was at the start and at the end of each span — 0 at birth, 63 at death.

Painted when the artist was 24. The artist lived to 63. 3 of the 16 dated works by this artist in our catalogue came earlier.

Shaded: the lifetime of Edmonia Lewis (1844–1907) ▲ this work, 1868 every dated painting, decade by decade

Compare with

Pick one work above: name two things it shares with this one, and one thing that's different.

More works to set beside this one: originaluniqueart.com/en/art/similar/edmonia-lewis-indian-combat-D3JBE7-en/

Colours

Measured from the image

    Main colour

    Celadon #c0bcb2

    Catalogued palette

    • #C0BCB2
    • #82827F
    • #2D2D2C
    • #5A5957

    These colours inside the artist’s whole palette Find other paintings by colour

    Main colour name
    Celadon
    Intensity
    Monochromatic How saturated and varied the colours are, from a single toned-down hue to many bright ones.
    Contrast
    Bold How much the colours differ in lightness and saturation across the picture.
    Harmony
    Unified Palette How well the colours work together, from clashing to fully unified.
    Brightness
    Balanced How light or dark the picture reads overall, from deep shadow to bright highlight.
    Saturation
    Muted How pure and strong the colours are, from near-grey to fully vivid.

    Where in the world is this painting looked at?

    • under 1%
    • 1–3%
    • 3–8%
    • 8–20%
    • 20% and over
    This painting alone has too few recorded visitors to map, so the plate reads every work by Edmonia Lewis over the last twelve months — 3 countries in all. Where these figures come from

    The ten leading countries

    1. 1 United States of America 50.0%
    2. 2 China 33.3%
    3. 3 Mexico 16.7%

    Find the three darkest countries on the map. Is the museum that keeps this painting in any of them? Write down one reason people far away might look at it.

    The 11 most looked-at works by Edmonia Lewis

    1. 1 Old Arrow Maker, 1872 13.3%
    2. 2 Anna Quincy Waterstone, 1866 13.3%
    3. 3 The Death of Cleopatra, 1876 13.3%
    4. 4 Night (Two Sleeping Children) 13.3%
    5. 5 Hagar, 1875 13.3%
    6. 6 Cleopatra on Throne, 1876 6.7%
    7. 7 Anna Quincy Waterston, 1866 6.7%
    8. 8 Old Arrow Maker, 1872 6.7%
    9. 9 Columbus, 1867 6.7%
    10. 10 Hiawatha's Marriage, 1871 6.7%
    11. — Indian Combat, 1868 this painting 0.0%

    Together these works take 100.0% of all the attention this artist's paintings received over the last twelve months. The catalogue holds 17 works by this artist, of which 10 were looked at at least once. This painting has not been looked at yet in that time — it closes the list without a rank. The same counts, month by month

    Bars measure attention, not quality. Pick the work at the top and this one: name one thing that might make a painting famous beyond how well it is painted.

    Source: OriginalUniqueArt.com — accessed Sept. 29, 2026

    Indian Combat — Edmonia Lewis Part 2 · In context

    About this artwork

    Indian Combat — Edmonia Lewis

    Indian Combat by Edmonia Lewis

    Edmonia Lewis’s “Indian Combat,” completed in 1868, stands as a testament to the pioneering spirit of African American and Native American art during the Reconstruction Era. More than just a sculpture; it's a poignant meditation on conflict, resilience, and the enduring legacy of Indigenous cultures confronting Western expansion—themes that resonate powerfully even today. The piece resides in the Cleveland Museum of Art’s collection, where its striking visual impact continues to captivate audiences.

    Subject Matter: At its core, “Indian Combat” depicts a dramatic confrontation between two figures representing Native American warriors. Lewis drew inspiration from Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's poem "The Song of Hiawatha," which explored the clash between Indigenous traditions and encroaching European influence—a narrative deeply rooted in the anxieties surrounding westward settlement and the displacement of Native peoples.

    Style: The sculpture embodies neoclassical aesthetics, prioritizing idealized human forms and balanced compositions—characteristics prevalent during Lewis’s time as she studied at Oberlin College and honed her craft under influential mentors. However, unlike many neoclassical depictions of historical events, “Indian Combat” eschews grand spectacle for a focused portrayal of intense physical struggle.

    Technique: Crafted from meticulously carved marble, the sculpture exemplifies Lewis's mastery of sculptural technique. The artist skillfully employed subtle shading and textural variations to convey depth and realism—a deliberate choice reflecting her commitment to capturing the physicality of human emotion and experience.

    Composition and Visual Narrative

    The sculpture’s pyramidal arrangement anchors its visual narrative, positioning the two figures at opposing ends while intertwining them in a gesture of fierce resistance. This dynamic composition underscores the central conflict—a struggle for dominance symbolized by the intertwined postures of the warriors. A smaller figure kneeling at the base serves as a grounding element, representing vulnerability and perhaps acknowledging defeat—yet simultaneously conveying unwavering determination. The upward angle of the frame emphasizes the height and power of the figures, reinforcing the sculpture’s dramatic impact.

    Color Palette and Material Considerations

    “Indian Combat” utilizes a predominantly monochromatic palette dominated by shades of white and grey derived from the marble material itself. This deliberate restraint contributes to the sculpture's solemn atmosphere—allowing the contours of the figures and the subtle nuances of light and shadow to command attention. The polished surface of the marble enhances textural contrast, highlighting the sculptor’s meticulous attention to detail and conveying a sense of timelessness.

    Symbolism and Emotional Resonance

    Beyond its depiction of physical conflict, “Indian Combat” speaks to broader themes of cultural identity and resistance—mirroring Lewis's own experiences as a woman navigating societal prejudices during her time in Rome. The sculpture’s muscular figures embody strength and determination—a defiant assertion against oppression—while the intertwined poses convey palpable tension and vulnerability. As historian Juanita Marie Holland noted, “Lewis took no occasion to remind anyone of important issues: broken treaties, the oppression of increasing European settlement, and the distress of Native sovereignties.” Nevertheless, "Indian Combat" remains a powerful emblem of perseverance and embodies the enduring spirit of Indigenous cultures confronting adversity—a legacy that continues to inspire contemplation and admiration.

    Source: OriginalUniqueArt.com — accessed Sept. 29, 2026

    Indian Combat — Edmonia Lewis Part 3 · About this artwork

    Artist and museum

    Artist

    Edmonia Lewis

    Born in Green Bay, United States of America

    A Pioneer Forged in Marble: The Life and Legacy of Edmonia Lewis

    Born around July 4, 1844, in Greenbush, New York—a place that would later be renamed Rensselaer—Mary Edmonia Lewis emerged as a singular voice in the 19th-century art world. Known to many by her Ojibwe name, “Wildfire,” she was a sculptor who defied expectations and shattered barriers, becoming the first African American and Native American artist to achieve international recognition in the fine arts. Her story is one of resilience, artistic passion, and a determined spirit that refused to be confined by the societal constraints of her time. Lewis’s heritage was a rich tapestry woven from diverse threads: her father was Afro-Haitian, while her mother, Catherine Mike Lewis, traced her lineage to both the Mississauga Ojibwe people and African American roots. This blended ancestry profoundly shaped her artistic vision, imbuing her work with themes of identity, cultural heritage, and the struggles for freedom and equality. Orphaned at a young age, she was raised by her maternal aunts and half-brother Samuel, who recognized and nurtured her burgeoning talent, providing crucial support for her education and artistic aspirations. Early experiences selling Ojibwe crafts alongside her family near Niagara Falls instilled in her an appreciation for Indigenous artistry and a connection to her Native American identity—a connection that would resonate throughout her career.

    From Abolitionist Activism to Roman Studios

    Lewis’s formal education began at New-York Central College, a Baptist abolitionist school in McGrawville, followed by enrollment at Oberlin College in 1859. It was here that she formally adopted the name Mary Edmonia Lewis and embarked on her artistic studies. However, her time at Oberlin was marred by racial prejudice and a deeply unjust accusation of poisoning classmates—an incident that led to a trial, acquittal, but lasting trauma and ultimately prompted her departure in 1863. Despite these hardships, Oberlin exposed her to the fervent abolitionist movement and forged connections with individuals who would later champion her work. Moving to Boston around 1863, Lewis began crafting portrait medallions of prominent abolitionists like William Lloyd Garrison and Charles Sumner, establishing herself as an artist committed to social justice. This early success paved the way for a pivotal move in 1865: she relocated to Rome, Italy, where she would spend the majority of her career. Rome offered a haven—a vibrant artistic community and a degree of freedom from the pervasive racism she had experienced in America. It was here that Lewis truly flourished, honing her neoclassical style and creating some of her most iconic sculptures.

    Sculpting Identity: Themes and Techniques

    Edmonia Lewis’s work is characterized by its elegant neoclassical forms infused with powerful thematic content. She fearlessly tackled subjects rarely explored by sculptors of her time—particularly those relating to Black people and Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Her sculptures are not merely aesthetic objects; they are poignant statements about race, identity, and the human condition. The Death of Cleopatra, perhaps her most celebrated work, presents a dramatic and unconventional depiction of the Egyptian queen’s final moments, emphasizing agency and dignity rather than despair. Hiawatha and Minnehaha, a sculpture inspired by Longfellow's poem, portrays Native American figures with sensitivity and respect, challenging prevailing stereotypes. Other notable works include busts of historical figures like Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses S. Grant, as well as sculptures exploring biblical narratives. Lewis’s dedication to her craft was remarkable; she insisted on personally executing the entire sculpting process from start to finish—a rare practice for sculptors of that era, who typically relied on assistants for the laborious task of carving marble. This commitment underscored her artistic independence and ensured the authenticity of her vision.

    A Lasting Impression: Legacy and Historical Significance

    Edmonia Lewis’s achievements were groundbreaking. She was not only a pioneering sculptor but also a symbol of resilience and determination in the face of adversity. Her success challenged societal norms and prejudices, opening doors for future generations of artists from marginalized communities. Though her work fell into relative obscurity for many years after her death in 1907, it has experienced a remarkable resurgence in recent decades, thanks to renewed scholarly interest and a growing appreciation for her unique contribution to art history. In 2002, Molefi Kete Asante included Lewis on his list of “100 Greatest African Americans,” cementing her place as an important figure in American cultural heritage. Today, her sculptures are held in prestigious museum collections around the world, inspiring contemporary artists and scholars alike. Edmonia Lewis’s story is a testament to the power of art to transcend boundaries, challenge conventions, and illuminate the complexities of the human experience—a legacy that continues to resonate with audiences today.

    Notable Works: The Death of Cleopatra, Hiawatha and Minnehaha, Forever Free, Old Arrowhead.

    Influences: Neoclassical sculpture, abolitionist movement, Native American storytelling traditions.

    Museum

    Cleveland Museum of Art

    On show in Cleveland, United States of America

    A Legacy Forged in Light: Exploring the Cleveland Museum of Art

    Nestled within University Circle’s vibrant heart, the Cleveland Museum of Art isn't merely a repository of artistic treasures; it’s an immersive journey through human creativity spanning millennia and continents. From its remarkably accessible free admission policy to its breathtaking architectural evolution—a harmonious blend of neoclassical grandeur, modernist boldness, and contemporary innovation—the CMA offers an experience that transcends the traditional museum visit. Founded on a bedrock of philanthropic vision in 1913, it has consistently championed inclusivity, inviting all to engage with art’s profound power to illuminate our world. The museum's story is inextricably linked to Cleveland itself, reflecting the city’s dynamic growth and its enduring commitment to cultural enrichment.

    The collection’s breadth is truly astonishing. While renowned for its unparalleled holdings in Asian and Egyptian art – imagine standing before the serene beauty of a Ming dynasty screen or the imposing majesty of an ancient sarcophagus – the CMA's narrative extends far beyond these iconic areas. European masterpieces, from the delicate brushstrokes of Monet to the revolutionary canvases of Van Gogh and Picasso, form a cornerstone of its legacy. Contemporary works pulse with vitality, challenging perspectives and reflecting the complexities of our time. Recent exhibitions like “Rose Iron Works,” a powerful exploration of Cleveland’s industrial heritage through the lens of contemporary sculpture, demonstrate the museum's commitment to both historical significance and engaging dialogue. The CMA doesn’t simply display art; it fosters understanding, sparking curiosity and inviting contemplation on its cultural context.

    Architectural Echoes: A Conversation Across Time

    The physical structure of the Cleveland Museum of Art is as captivating as its collection. Its initial 1916 building, a magnificent example of neoclassical design rendered in pristine white Georgian Marble and adorned with Beaux-Arts flourishes, exudes an aura of timeless elegance – a testament to the vision of Hinman Hurlbut, John Huntington, and Horace Kelley. However, the museum’s story doesn't end there. In 1971, Marcel Breuer’s strikingly modern North Wing dramatically countered this classical foundation with its angular granite facade, creating a dynamic dialogue between eras. The most recent transformation, completed in 2013 under Rafael Viñoly, represents a masterful synthesis of past and present. This ambitious project doubled the museum's size, culminating in a breathtaking glass-roofed atrium that floods the interior with natural light, dissolving boundaries and fostering a sense of airy spaciousness. The atrium isn’t simply an expansion; it’s a deliberate orchestration of architectural styles—a visual embodiment of the CMA’s commitment to bridging cultures and time periods through art.

    A Living Institution: Beyond the Walls

    The Cleveland Museum of Art is far more than just a collection housed within walls. It's a vibrant hub for engagement, education, and community building. Interactive exhibits invite visitors to delve deeper into artistic techniques and cultural contexts, while dedicated educational programs cater to audiences of all ages and backgrounds. The museum actively fosters a sense of belonging through lectures, artist talks, and hands-on workshops—transforming the experience from passive observation to active participation. Notably, Transformer Station, a dynamic center for visual and performing arts located in Cleveland’s vibrant Hingetown neighborhood, extends the CMA's reach beyond its physical boundaries, showcasing emerging artists and fostering creative dialogue within the city. This commitment to accessibility, education, and community engagement solidifies the museum’s position as a vital force shaping the artistic landscape of Ohio and beyond.

    A Foundation Built on Vision: Enduring Support

    The story of the Cleveland Museum of Art is inextricably linked to the unwavering generosity of its founders and the continued support of the Cleveland community. Hinman Hurlbut, John Huntington, and Horace Kelley envisioned an institution that would be accessible to all—a radical idea at the time—and this spirit of inclusivity remains central to the CMA’s mission today. The museum's substantial endowment – exceeding $920 million as of 2023 – allows it to maintain its free admission policy and invest in ambitious acquisitions and innovative programming, ensuring that future generations will have access to these invaluable cultural treasures. The ongoing dedication to preserving and expanding the collection stands as a testament to the enduring power of art to inspire, educate, and enrich lives—a legacy firmly rooted in the vision of those who first conceived this extraordinary institution.

    Useful Links:

    Cleveland Museum of Art

    Wikipedia - Cleveland Museum of Art

    Reynolds Morse Foundation

    Additional Research:

    Cleveland Museum of Art

    Cleveland Museum of Art - Wikipedia

    Museum of Contemporary Art Cleveland - Wikipedia

    Cleveland - Wikipedia

    Where to read more

    Find this online

    QR code linking to the download page for Indian Combat

    originaluniqueart.com/en/art/download/edmonia-lewis-indian-combat-D3JBE7-en/

    Cite this artwork

    MLA
    Lewis, Edmonia. Indian Combat. 1868, Cleveland Museum of Art. https://originaluniqueart.com/en/art/edmonia-lewis-indian-combat-D3JBE7-en/
    APA
    Lewis, Edmonia (1868). Indian Combat [Painting]. Cleveland Museum of Art. https://originaluniqueart.com/en/art/edmonia-lewis-indian-combat-D3JBE7-en/
    Chicago
    Edmonia Lewis. Indian Combat. 1868. Cleveland Museum of Art. https://originaluniqueart.com/en/art/edmonia-lewis-indian-combat-D3JBE7-en/
    Harvard
    Lewis, Edmonia (1868) Indian Combat. Cleveland Museum of Art. Available at: https://originaluniqueart.com/en/art/edmonia-lewis-indian-combat-D3JBE7-en/

    Source: OriginalUniqueArt.com — accessed Sept. 29, 2026

    Indian Combat — Edmonia Lewis Part 4 · Artist and museum

    Look closely

    Indian Combat — Edmonia Lewis

    Look closely

    Answer in your own words. There are no wrong answers here — only answers you can explain.

    1. What catches your eye first, and why?
    2. Which colours or shapes create the mood — and what is that mood?
    3. How many faces can you find? ____ (our catalogue counts 2 — do you agree?)
    4. Our catalogue files this work under: native american, sculpture, marble. Do you agree? What would you add, or take away?
    5. Look back at Cleopatra on Throne (1876), earlier in this guide. Name two things it shares with this work, and one that is different.

    Your response

    Write a short paragraph about this artwork. Use the facts from the earlier parts of this guide, and your answers above.

    Source: OriginalUniqueArt.com — accessed Sept. 29, 2026

    Indian Combat — Edmonia Lewis Part 5 · Look closely

    Art quiz

    Indian Combat — Edmonia Lewis

    How well do you know this artwork?

    Tick one answer for each of the 5 questions below. Each has exactly one correct answer.

    1. 1. What is the title of Edmonia Lewis’s sculpture?

      • A The Song of Hiawatha
      • B Indian Combat
      • C Minnehaha and Minnehaha

    2. 2. In what medium was Edmonia Lewis's masterpiece created?

      • A Oil Paint
      • B Watercolor
      • C Marble Sculpture

    3. 3. Where did Edmonia Lewis study before embarking on her artistic career?

      • A Harvard University
      • B Oberlin College
      • C Yale University

    4. 4. What is a prominent theme explored in Hiawatha and Minnehaha?

      • A The American Revolution
      • B Romantic Idealization of Native American Culture
      • C Industrial Progress

    5. 5. Which artistic movement influenced Edmonia Lewis's style?

      • A Impressionism
      • B Cubism
      • C Neoclassical

    My score: ____ out of 5

    Answer key — for the teacher

    This starts a fresh printed page, so it can simply be left out of the copies.

    1A · 2B · 3A · 4B · 5C

    Check any answer against the catalogue record for this painting

    Source: OriginalUniqueArt.com — accessed Sept. 29, 2026

    Indian Combat — Edmonia Lewis Part 6 · Art quiz

    Questions & Answers

    What explains the copyright situation of "Indian Combat" by Edmonia Lewis?

    "Indian Combat" by Edmonia Lewis is in the public domain - its copyright has expired. Copyright duration runs from the artist's death, which occurred in 1907.

    What does "Indian Combat" by Edmonia Lewis depict?

    The themes present in "Indian Combat" by Edmonia Lewis include native american, sculpture, marble, conflict, feminism, ojibwe, romanticism. Together they summarize the artwork's subject matter.

    What mood and emotion does "Indian Combat" by Edmonia Lewis express?

    "Indian Combat" by Edmonia Lewis conveys a melancholic feeling within an overall romantic mood.